Ukraina

About Ukraine

Official language: UkrainianCapital: KyivIndependence: August, 24, 1991Location: Central-Eastern Europe, part of the East-European plain, between 44''20' and 52''20' N and 22''5' and 41''15'E.Area: 603 700 km2Climate: moderately continental, except for Southern Crimea, where the climate is subtropical, of the Mediterranean type. The Carpathian climate is also mild, with warm winter and rainy summer.Average winter temperature is from -8° to -12° C (from +17.6° F to +3° F). In the Southern regions average winter temperature is 0° C (+32° F).Average summer temperature is from +18° to +25° C (from +64.4° F to +77° F), although maximum temperature can be more than +35° C (+95° F).Best time to visit Ukraine: summer, late spring and early autumn.Population: 47 732 079 (25th in the world, population density - 80 p/km2)Currency: hryvnia (letter code UAH, digital code 980)Time zone: GMT+2 (UTC+2)Internet top-level domain: uaInternational phone code: 380 Modern Ukraine - Presentation.pps (1 167 KB) Modern Ukraine - Presentation.rarPart 1.rar (489 KB), Part 2.rar (489 KB), Part 3.rar (85 KB).

Country

Ukraine is the second largest country in Europe in terms of area (603,700 sq. km) and fifth in Europe in terms of population (46.2 million people). The country is known as "The Breadbasket of Europe" due to its unique treasure - fertile black earth. Ukraine is a country with a thousand-year history whose roots reach back to the time of Kyivan Rus (9th century).
What is this country like today? For foreign travelers, its name sometimes evokes contradictory associations. For those who have not been here before, these are formal stereotypes: "Chornobyl", "the Klitschko brothers" and "the Orange Revolution". For those who have seen the country from the inside, they are bright impressions, like "I am surprised how modern and nice this country is," or "My main impression of Ukraine is its people, who are open, sincere, hospitable and beautiful."
Here, there are many unusual things for foreigners, and this is mostly the case because Ukraine's modern times are times of drastic growth. Here, cities grow swiftly, business life is in full swing, and new talents and ambitious plans are being born. To visit Ukraine today is to feel the pulse of dynamic life in that part of the European continent which only 15 years ago was terra incognita for most foreigners.
Rapid development always entails bright contrasts: wealth and poverty, the newest technologies and outdated manufacturing facilities from Soviet times, as well as modern business centers and multi-apartment buildings in remote residential districts in the cities. The development of democracy is also drastic: This is both "the Orange Revolution" and dynamic internal politics. However, present-day Ukraine is changeless in one thing: It is bringing modern European and general world standards very swiftly into its life; it is integrating into European and Euro-Atlantic security and cooperation structures and bringing to light for the world community the truth about the tragic pages of its history, in particular, the Holodomor genocide of 1932-1933. Having visited Ukraine, you will see all this both in politics and business, as well as in relations between people. We are confident that becoming acquainted with Ukraine will turn into a bright impression for you, which you will never be able to forget!

Geographical Location

Location

Ukraine is located in the Central East Europe between 44''20' and 52''20' N and 22''5' and 41''15'E, in the southeastern part of the East European plain.
Ukraine's geographic position is quite advantageous since the most important transportation routes are crossing its territory linking West Europe with countries of Trans-Caucasia and Central Asia.
Ukraine's territory stretches for 893 kilometers from north to south, and for 1316 kilometers from west to east, and is one of the largest countries which borders do not transgress the bounds of Europe.
The geographic center of Europe is on the territory of Ukraine not far from Rakhov in Zakarpatia oblast. As far back as 1887, experts of Austria Hungary had determined this point, stele and land-surveying sign marking it. In Latin, the following words were engraves there: LОСUS РЕRЕNNІS. Dilicentissime cum lіbеllа lіbrаtіоnіs guае еst іп Аustrіа еt Нungаrіа соnfесtа сum mеnsurа grаdum mеrіdіоnаlіum еt раrаllеlоumіеrum Еurореum. МD ССС LХХХVІІ, "that translated state such a thing: "Permanent, exact, and eternal place. Very precisely, using special apparatus made in Austria and Hungary, with scale of meridians and parallels, set the Center of Europe. 1887."
The total area of Ukraine is 603 700 sq. kilometres that makes 5.7 percent of the teritory of Europe or 0.44 percent the world. Ukraine's territory is larger greater than that of France (544 thousand sq. km), Spain (505 thousand sq. km), Sweden (450 thousand sq. km), Germany (356.3 thousand sq. km) and Poland (312.7 thousand sq. km).
Total length of the border: 6992 km
Extension of the land border: 5737 km
Length of the sea border: 1355 km (the Black Sea); 249.5 (The Sea of Azov), and 49 km (Kerch Strait).

Outlet to the Sea

Ukraine has a wide outlet to the Black Sea and Sea of Azov that link it with countries of the Mediterranean. Also through the sea Ukraine borders with Bulgaria, Turkey and Georgia. The area of the exclusive (sea) economic zone of Ukraine is over 82 thousand sq. km.
In accord to the Constitution Ukraine is a unitary state.
The administrative-territorial system of Ukraine is comprised of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the following twenty-four oblasts: Cherkasy, Ch е rnihiv, Chernivtsy, Dnipropetrovsk, Donetsk, Ivano-Frankivsk, Kharkiv, Kherson, Khmelnytsky, Kyiv, Kirovohrad, Lviv, Luhansk, Mykolaiv, Odesa, Poltava, Rivne, Sumy, Ternopil, Vinnytsia, Volyn', Zakarpattia, Zaporizhia, and Zhytomyr.
The Autonomous Republic of Crimea is the inseparable constituent of Ukraine, and solves issues delegated to it within the authority delegated to it by the Constitution of Ukraine. The Republic has substantial self-dependency to settle local matters, the Constitution of its own approved by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine December 23, 1998, supreme representation - the Verkhovna rada of Autonomous Republic of Crimea, and executive - the Republic's Council of Ministers, bodies.
In addition, two cities, Kyiv and Sevastopol, as equated in status with oblasts: the former as the capital of the country, while the latter as the naval bases of Navies of Ukraine and the Russian Federation.
Within the administrative and territorial division of Ukraine the middle level units are districts and towns of oblast importance (in autonomous Crimea correspondingly of the republican importance).
The largest cities of Ukraine are Kyiv, Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk, Donetsk, Odesa, Zaporizhia and Lviv.
The lowest links in the administrative-territorial system of Ukraine are the towns of regional importance, urban settlements, and villages.
In all, there are 490 districts, 446 cities and towns, 907 urban settlements and 10196 villages in Ukraine.
The largest cities such as Kyiv, the majority of the oblast centers, Sevastopol, Kryvyi Rih, Mariupol, etc. are also divided into municipal districts.
Each of the administrative-territorial units has its regulatory bodies with this or that authority invested.
In accord with the Article 123 of the Constitution of Ukraine territorial system is based on principles of country's unity and territorial integrity, combination of centralization and decentralization in exercising government authority, balanced social and economic development of the regions with their historical, economic, ecologic, geographic and demographic features, as well as ethnic and cultural traditions taken into account.
Monument to the founders of Kyiv: brothers Kyi, Schek , Khoriv and their sister Lybid
The symbol of Sevastopol - monument to the lost ships

Geography

Ukraine is a Central Eastern European country located between 52°20′ and 44°20′ north latitude and 22°5' and 41°15' east longitude. The capital city of Ukraine is Kyiv.
Ukraine is the largest country entirely located in Europe. Speaking in numbers, it has an area of 603,628 sq. km. It represents 5.7% of the total area of Europe and 0.44% of the world's dry land surface. Ukraine stretches 1,316 km from west to east and 893 km from north to south. According to measurements made in 1887 by the geographical society and the military department of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the geographical center of Europe is in present-day Ukraine, as indicated by a special signpost near the town of Rakhiv in Zakarpattya Region.
Ukraine borders with Belarus to the north, Poland to the west, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and Russia to the east and northeast. Its southern territories are washed by the Black Sea and the Azov Sea. Its largest Black Sea ports are Odesa, Illichivsk, Sevastopol and Kherson, and its largest Azov Sea ports are Mariupol, Berdyansk and Kerch. Due to its advantageous geographical location and its branched network of air, sea, railroad and motor transport, Ukraine is a transit point for passengers and cargoes from various countries.
Most of the country is flat, with mountains only in its western part, as well as its southern part, Crimea. These are the Carpathian Mountains and the Crimean Mountains. The highest Ukrainian mountain peak is Hoverla (2,061 m) in the Carpathian Mountains.
Ukraine's climate is mainly moderately continental. However, there is a subtropical area in the very southern part of Crimea. That's why the southern coast of Crimea has a great many sea resorts. Ukraine's nature is very diverse and enchants even seasoned travelers with its dense forests, endless steppes and midland rivers. In spring and summer, they are a cheerful green color; in autumn they are bright yellow, orange and red, while in winter everything is covered in blankets of snow. Ukrainian winters are snowy, but not too cold, with snow usually arriving in late November or in December. Therefore, Ukraine offers you many different impressions!

Landscape

Mountains

Although 95 percent of the country is flat, Ukraine has two famous mountain ranges: The chain of Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains rises in the west, while in the extreme south of the country the range of the Crimean Mountains is prominent.
The Ukrainian, or Eastern, Carpathians are part of the great Alpine-Carpathian mountain range. These are young mountains of medial height varying from 1200 to 1600 m, formed during the epoch of Alpine folding, and comprised of several parallel ridges extending from the northwest to the southeast for 270 km. The Mountain ridges of the east are called the Outer Carpathians. The highest area of the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains is the Chornohora massif that has several alps of over 2000 m high; it is here that the highest peak of Ukraine, the Hoverla Mountain 2 061 m high, is located.
The Carpathian mountain system is remarkable due to its unique Central Europe ancestral forest that still flourishes. As for the mountains themselves, they are "soft", high pasturelands covered with alpine meadows without rocky ledges. At close to 2000 meters, one may encounter pine tree growing on the Pip Ivan Mountain, 54 meters high larch near Rakhov, the highest Carpathian tree, as well as the smallest one, an obtusifolious willow (shorter than 15 cm) on the sides of Blyznytsia mountain. In spring, not far from Khust one may observe the Narcissi valley in bloom. Many thousand years ago, karstic caves and rock-salt deposits have formed in the mountain ranges; the salt lakes located over the salt deposits are very much similar in their healing power to the one of the Dead Sea in Israel.
Having acquired the present day shape during the epoch of Alpine folding, the Crimean Mountains occupy the farthest south of the Crimean peninsula and are part of the Crimean Caucasian mountain range. They extend from west to east for 180 km with three ridges standing out: the Central ridge with heights of from 1200 to 1500 m, Inner ridge of 400 to 600 m high, and Outer ridge going up from 250 to 350 m. The Central ridge is the highest of the Crimean Mountains and represents a chain of woodless massifs called yails. The highest point of the Crimean Mountains, the Roman-Kosh Mountain 1 545 m, is located on the Babuhan-Yail. The southern slopes of the Central ridge end with the Southern Coast of Crimea.

Seas

The Black Sea area is 422 000 sq. kilometers. The Kerch Strait links it with the Sea of Azov and the Bosporus with the Sea of Marmara. The length of the Black Sea coastline within Ukraine is over 1500 km. with the beaches predominantly sloping (except in the region of the Crimean Mountains). In the northeastern part of the coast, numerous estuaries and lakes had formed separated from the sea by narrow sandy strips. The Black Sea is over 2000 meters deep in the center, but within the zone adjoining Ukraine the depth of 100 to 120 meters prevails. Considerable deepth is found only in the region of the Southern Coast of Crimea. Water temperature in the northwestern part of the Sea fluctuates in winter within the range of from 0 to 8? С ( 32? F to 46.4?F) . The surface water temperature in summer reaches 23? to 25? С (73,4? F to 77? F).
The salinity of water is from 13% to 14% in the northwestern part of the Sea, reaching 16% near the Southern Coast of Crimea. At the depth of 150 to 200 m water is saturated with hydrogen sulphide; hence, organic life is concentrated predominantly in the upper layers.
The area of the Sea of Azov is 39 thousand sq. kilometers. Its beaches are low-lying, straight, and characterized by tongues of sand (in Berdiansk, Obitochna, etc.). The biggest, Arbatska Strelka, is 112 km long, separating the Sivash Sea, the system of small bays with mineralized water. With the maximum depth of 15 m, the Sea of Azov freezes at its shores in winter. In summer, the surface water temperature reaches 25? or 30? С(77? F...86? F). On average, the salinity is from 10‰ to 11‰, with its maximum of 25‰ in the Sivash Sea.

Rivers

Overall, there are more than 73 thousand rivers in Ukraine with over a hundred of them longer than 100 kilometers. The rivers of Ukraine predominantly belong to the basins of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov with the exception of Southern Buh and other left bank tributaries of Vistula that are part the Baltic Sea basin.
The Dnipro River is the third in length in Europe after the Volga and the Danube. It springs in the Valdai Hills in Russia, flows into Dnipro estuary on the Black Sea. It divides the territory of Ukraine from north to south into its right bank and left bank, covering almost half of the country with its basin. It is a horizontally flowing river with a wide flood bed. Its right bank steeplp rises up from 50 to 150 meters over the water level, while the left bank is low-lying and mildly sloping. The largest tributaries, Prypiat and Desna, are navigable.
The Danube River passes through the territory of Ukraine in its lower flow and pours into the Black Sea creating large delta of three branches. The River is the major trade water route that connects Ukraine with many countries of Europe. The most important tributaries of the Danube in Ukraine are Tisa and Prut.

Lakes

There are over 20 thousand water reservoirs in Ukraine. Three thousand of the number are lakes located predominantly in Polissia region, Coastal Black Sea lowland and steppe region of Crimea. The biggest fresh water lakes are the Yalpuh in the flooded area of Danube and Svitiazke in the Polissia region.
Lakes of the Coastal Black Sea lowland and of the steppe region of Crimea had formed mainly because of flooding of the river plains and gorges by the sea. Some of them are called estuaries (for instance, Dnister, Tylihulsk, Kuialnyk, and Molochny estuaries).

Climate

Ukraine is located in the temperate zone with a predominantly temperate continental climate. Crimea is closer to a Mediterranean subtropical climate and the Trans Carpathian region is mild with little snow in winter but rainy summer.
Average winter temperature ranges from 8° to 12° C (17.6° F to 3° F). The winter temperature in the southern regions of the country hovers close to 0° C (32° F).
Average summer temperature remains within the range of 18° to 25° C (64,4° F to 77° F) sometimes reaching over 35° C (95° F) during the day.
Sunny and serene days prevail in Ukraine, typically 230 to 236 days during the year. The Mountain Carpathian and Crimean ranges protect the Trans Carpathia and Black Sea Coast of Crimea from penetration of cold masses of arctic air coming from the north.
Ukraine is characterized by frequent changes in weather, which is connected with arrival of cyclones and anticyclones (correspondingly 45 and 36 on average during a year).
Precipitations are distributed irregularly with their annual quantity diminishing in the south and south-east. The peak amount of precipitations falls to the share of the Crimean Mountains and Ukrainian Carpathians.
The annual amount of precipitations in:
• Plains - 300-700 мм
• Crimean Mountain - 1000-1200 мм
• Ukrainian Carpathians - over 1500 мм.
The warmest region of Ukraine is the Southern Coast of Crimea with temperatures reaching 39° С (102.2° F); however pleasant sea breezes soften the heat. Winter is quite warm with average temperature of 4° С (39.2° F) in January. Relative humidity in Crimea is always low being in the range of 65 to 80 percent, making breathing easy here even in hot weather. The low indexes of humidity, especially on the Southern Coast of Crimea in subtropical regions are optimal for Europeans.
The best time to visit Ukraine is in summer, late fall or early spring.

Flora and Fauna

Geographical location of Ukraine, especial geological development, relief, climate, a great number of rivers stipulated a numerous varieties of plant and wild life.
The plant life of Ukraine numbers close to 30,000 species, over four hundred of which are registered on the endangered-species list. Natural vegetation covers over 19 million hectares or close to one third of the country's territory.
Most of the endemic, rare or declining species are located in the Crimean and Carpathian mountains. Almost half of the endemic and 30 percent of the rare and declining plants are concentrated there.
Affected by the human commercial activity, the plant life of Ukraine has undergone considerable change: during the 16th to 19 centuries forest in the forest-steppe zone has been reduced more than five times, while the area with the most valuable oak and beech shrunk by quarter in the 19th century alone. Great damage had been inflicted to forests after the WWII during the reconstruction of the national economy.
As of today, fourteen percent of the Ukrainian territory is covered by forests, which composition of wood species is changing being influenced by the commercial activity. Plantations of fine wood are being expanded while that of the less valuable forest trees (hornbeam and aspen) reduced. Approximately half of the wood stock of Ukraine is conifers: pine, spruce and silver fir.
The forests of Ukraine are rich in berries, mushrooms, fruits of wild growing plants and medicinal plants, which 250 species are used in Ukraine for medical purposes including 150 in medical science. Regions most abundant with medicinal plants are Polissia (marshy woodlands), forest-steppe zone, and Carpathians.
The portrayal of plants is an important element of Ukrainian folk symbolism. In the national tradition symbolic meaning and representation attributed to trees and plants is very similar to that of the all European. Thus, an oak personifies power and endurance, a pine incarnates vital energy and prolificacy, a willow is believed to be a "fore tree" of life and is associated with the alchemy of spring. The guelder rose incarnating sun, fire, perpetuity of life, maiden beauty and eternal love is the traditional symbol of Ukraine.
The wildlife of Ukraine is distinguished by a large variety of species with almost 45 thousand kinds of animals. There are many unique natural localities in Ukraine where one can encounter rare surviving animals.
Elk, roe deer, wild boar, red deer, squirrel are inhabitants of forest zone; foxes and wolves are numerous, one may meet brown bears and lynx there. Of the avifauna, there is a large number of black cock, hazel grouse, wood grouse, starling, blue titmouse, cranes. The steppe zone is inhabited with ground squirrel, hamster, jerboa, field mouse, and marmot; of birds, there are skylark, quail, pink starling, steppe eagle, and others.
Some fur animals (nutria, mink, silvery-black fox, muskrat) were brought in from afar, and they acclimatized themselves well to the environment.
Wildlife of the coast region of the Back Sea and the Sea of Azov is highly varied; birds are especially numerous: martins, pochards, wild ducks, herons, bittern, pelicans, sea gulls, cormorants, etc. In the above seas, there is sturgeon, mackerel, bullhead, and so on. Rivers, lakes and manmade reservoirs are inhabited with perch, bream, zander, pike, crucian carp, sazan; and trout - in the Carpathians rivers.
The South Coast of Crimea and the mountaineous region of peninsula with climatic conditions similar to the Mediterranean, harbor such creatures as Crimean and rock lizards, leopard snake, southern nightingale, black vulture, red deer, and mouflon.
Hoofed, fir and bird-game are also widespread on the territory of Ukraine. In the game-preserves that may be found in practically all the regions of Ukraine, hunting is arranged for elk, wild boar, hare, fox, wild duck and goose, etc.
Eleven national nature parks, 4 biosphere preserves, 16 nature reserves, numerous dendrological parks are organized in Ukraine; there are also monument sites of landscape architecture there. Among them the most famous are Askania-Nova (late 19th century, Kherson oblast, Shatsky national nature park (Volyn oblast), dendrological parks: Spfiyivka (Cherkassy oblast), Oleksandria (Kyiv oblast), and Trostianetsky (Chernihiv oblast), as well as natural monuments: Dovbush Rocks in Ivano-Frankivsk and Lviv oblasts, Tomb of Stone in Donetsk and Zaporizhia oblasts, the Great Canyon in Crimea.

Natural Resources

Ukraine has considerable natural resources, the most valuable are the land and mineral resources.

Land Resources

Experts believe the quarter of the world chernozems (black topsoil) are concentrated on the Ukrainian land, an unequaled amount.
Formed under steppe vegetation in climatic conditions that is the most soft and humid in contrast to the grasslands of Eurasia, the Ukrainian chernozem is deemed as having the best physical, chemical, agrochemical and mineralogical composition. In consideration of the qualitative make up of its soils and productivity of its lands, Ukraine is seen as the richest country in the world. In the structure of the soil cover of Ukraine, chernozem amounts to 60.4 million hectares. Farmlands occupy sixty-nine percent this area, of which 78 percent account for croplands.
Humus content makes up the most reliable criterion to assess soil quality. Research of the soil blanket showed that the average content of humus in tillage is 3.2 percent. Soils with the highest content of humus are concentrated in Kharkiv (4.9 %), Kirovohrad and Dnipropetrovsk (both 4.5 %) oblasts.
High bioproductive properties characterize the supply of land in Ukraine. Using the most favorable structure of land and correspondent level of agriculture the county is capable to feed from 300 to 350 million people.
The Constitution of Ukraine adopted in 1996 defines the land as the principle national wealth that is under the guardianship of the State.

Mineral Products

Ukraine is among the leading countries of the world in supply of mineral primary resources. Occupying only 0.4 percent of mainland, the country is in possession of 5 % of the world reserves of minerals centered in c. 9 thousand deposits valued at over 11 trillion US dollars. Some of the minerals secure Ukraine a leading place among the countries of the CIS, Europe and the world.
The Donets Basin, where the industrial coal production has been carried out since 1795, is the basic source of coal supply in Ukraine. Located in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, it extends farther to the Rostov oblast of the Russian Federation. With the total area of around 60 thousand square kilometers, its coal deposits are estimated at 109 billion tons.
Oil and natural gas are concentrated at Dnipro-Donets (80 %) and the Black Sea Coast-Crimea oil-and-gas bearing regions. Promising future development are gas and oil deposits on the continental shelves of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. Demand of Ukraine is covered in oil by 10 to 15 percent, and in natural gas by 25 %, while deposits containing up to 3 billion tons of peat and oil shale have been discovered.
The iron-ores are deposited in the Kryvyi Rih (18.7 b. tons), Kremenchuh (4.5 b.), Bilozersk (2.5 b.) and Kerch (1.8 b.) iron-ore basins. The largest manganese-ore fields in the world are found in the Nikopol basin. Ukraine also has substantial fields of nickel, chromite, titanium, mercury (rated second in the world) and complex ores.
Ukraine is placed at the forefront in Europe and the world in the area of nonmetal minerals. Deposits of mineral wax and brimstone are the largest in the world, while that of graphite are the greatest on the European continent. Extraction of rock and potassium salts has been carried out in Ukraine from ancient times.
Also deposits of precious and semiprecious stones (beryl, amethyst, amber, jasper, rock crystal, morion, etc.) were discovered on the territory of the country, and within the recent years over 15 gold fields have been discovered.
The potential of the mineral primary resources of Ukraine is great serving as a basis for the further development of economy, in particular, of the metallurgic and chemical industries, production of ceramic and construction materials.

Money

The monetary unit of the present-day Ukraine is hryvnia.
Even before the present era began arrowheads were originally used as money equivalent in the Northern Black Sea coastal region. The first coins that our ancestors encountered were of ancient Greece origin found in hoards or individually on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov coasts. At the end of the 10th century in Kyivan Rus Prince Volodymyr took to minting coins of silver and gold called "sribnyk"and "zlatnyk'. Later, in ancient Rus they issued a cast silver piece hryvnia that became the principle monetary unit of the country.
The things did come around so that the territory of Ukraine was part of other countries with the correspondent use of monies. Situation started changing only after the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) was created. Under the UPR, Hetmanat, and Dyrectoria existing from 1917 to 1920, twenty-four types of legal tender were being issued.
Conditions for introducing full-fledged national currency have formed after independence of Ukraine was declared. To follow the traditions of the Kyivan Rus and liberation efforts of 1917 to 1920 hryvnia and its small change kopeck were put into circulation.
Founded in 1991, the National Bank of Ukraine is granted prerogative rights to put into circulation (emit) banknotes and coins. The NBU designs the bills and defines their face-value, assigns protective system and payment marks. To print and coin money the Country's own Mint and Banknote factory was set up with the state-of-the-art equipment provided.

Population

Population, its dynamics and structure Ukraine is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe. This was stipulated by natural, historic, and economic peculiarities of land settlement in Ukraine. Colonization of modern Ukrainian territory dates back to ancient times. The Middle Dnipro Region (the so-called Podniprovye that currently embraces Kyiv and Cherkasy regions) was the center of the first state formations of the eastern Slavs. The northern part of forest-steppe region and the southern part of Polissya ranked among the most densely populated and developed territories starting from the times of Kyiv Rus till the XIX century. The southern part of forest-steppe zone remained sparsely populated till the XVIII century. Intensive settlement of such lands started in the second half of the XIX century due to extension of commercial farming and development of mining industry in Donbass and Dnipro regions.
Before the World War I, the forest-steppe zone was notable for the densest population. On the contrary, the southern part of steppe zone and the utmost northern part of Ukrainian Polissya remained quite deserted.
According to approximate estimates, in the end of the XVIII century Ukrainian population totaled some 7.9 mn people. By the mid-XIX century, it grew to 12.1 mn people. The second half of the XIX century and the beginning of the XX century (i.e. the period of impetuous development of capitalism) were characterized with more intensive growth of Ukrainian population. In 1913, its total quantity on the territory of modern Ukraine was equal to 35.2 mn people. Events that characterized public life in Ukraine after the revolution of 1917 significantly affected the volume of its population. A lot of people died in the period of civil war. The policy of full collectivization of agriculture and dispossession of kulaks introduced by Stalin was accompanied with expulsion of hundreds of thousands Ukrainians and their resettlement in Siberia and northern regions of Russia. In 1932-1933, Stalinist regime organized the artificial starvation in Ukraine. Peasants were deprived of the whole reserves of their bread. During this period, millions people died of starvation. Until recently, it was even forbidden to mention those events. At present, the monument devoted to the victims of Holodomor (artificially caused starvation) was set near the city of Lubny (Poltava region). Besides to that, millions of innocent people died in prisons and camps during repressions organized in the 1930s.
During the World War II, Ukrainian population also sustained heavy casualties. A lot of Ukraine's sons and daughters perished at the front, in captivity, and in fascist slavery. Stalinist repressions continued in the 1940s, and in the beginning of the 1950s. During these years Ukraine lost almost 10 mn people. In 1929-1959, total losses of Ukrainian population amounted to some 16 mn people. Devastation of Ukrainian peasants, excessive urbanization, and settlement of the eastern regions of Russia caused great migration of Ukrainian population beyond the bounds of the state. Besides, changes in the volume of Ukrainian population resulted from significant curtailment of birth rate and natality. Such downward tendency led to situation when total quantity of Ukrainian population featured extremely slow augmentation and suffered from regular abrupt cutbacks.
Changes in birth rate, mortality, and natality featured by Ukraine in the previous decades directly affected and currently affect the age structure of Ukrainian population. The overall tendency is as follows: population growth was accompanied with its accelerated ageing. In particular, young able-bodied people (i.e. up to 16 years old) contributed 25.6% to the total in 1970 and only 21.5% in 1995 while the share of elder able-bodies people (men - up to 60 years old, women - up to 55 years old) correspondingly incremented from 17.8% to 22.7%.
Ageing of Ukrainian population can be explained with curtailed birth rate and some rural tendencies, namely mass outflow of rural youth to the cities. For the most part, the process of ageing affected the villages of Chernigiv, Sumy, Poltava, Khmelnitskiy, Cherkasy, and Vinytsya regions where the aged accounted for more than 33% of the total.
Women dominate the sex-age pattern of Ukrainian population. According to population census accomplished in 1989, there were 27.8 mn women in Ukraine (54% of the total population), and 23.9 mn of men (46%). The exceeding quantity of women was stipulated by considerable losses in the number of men during the years of the World War II. Today, such tendency primarily characterizes the elder age groups. The 1950s featured even the greater difference in the number of men and women. For instance, in 1959 total quantity of men in Ukraine was behind the quantity of women by 4.1 mn. In the 1980s and the 1990s, such gap gradually converged. In 2000, total quantities of men and women under 46 years old generally stood on a par.
The social distribution of Ukrainian population featured significant changes as well. The number of workers and officers was notable for sweeping upsurge. At present, Ukrainian economy embraces more than 20 mn workers and officers, which is three times greater than it was before the World War II. Their quantity significantly grew even in those sectors of national economy, which previously represented an agricultural sector being industrially outdated.
The history of Ukrainian peasantry is quite complicated. Perversion of the principles of civilized co-operation, and unreasonably accelerated collectivization of Ukrainian agriculture accompanied with violence led to situation when millions of peasants and their families were torn away from their land and homes. The number of rural population constantly curtailed, and the same changes characterized the living and working conditions as well as the professional distribution of peasantry. The quantity of machine-operators featured the upward tendency embracing tractor operators, mechanicals, drivers, and specialists of cattle-breeding farms. On the contrary, intellectuals witnessed hard times during the years of command-and-administrative system. However, the quantity of specialists that had the higher education gradually augmented and today their number is equal to 3 mn people. Besides, it should be mentioned that intellectuals in Ukraine had no proper working conditions, and their creative potential was strictly limited. A lot of outstanding writers, artists, painters, musicians, and singers suffered from repressions. In conditions of today's economic recession, living conditions of the major part of Ukrainian intellectuals became even more awesome.
Significant changes also characterize the regional distribution of Ukrainian population. Such changes were primarily stipulated by people transference to industrial regions and centers, industrialization of previously agricultural regions, and development of cities. At present, the average density of population totals 85.7 people per 1 sq. km. The most densely populated region includes the industrial southeastern part of the country represented by Donetsk (193), Dnipropetrovsk (119), and Lugansk (103) regions. Besides, significant quantity of Ukrainians lives in the forest-steppe part of western Ukraine, namely Lviv (126 people per 1 sq. km), Chernivtsy (116), and Ivano-Frankivsk (105) regions. The mentioned regions (plus Zakarpattya and Ternopil regions) are also notable for the highest density of rural population.
The lowest density of population characterizes Kherson (44 people per 1 sq. km) and Chernigiv (42 people per 1 sq. km) regions.
Ukrainian population is notable for its multi-national character. Being one of numerous European nations Ukrainians contribute almost three fourth to the total quantity of Ukraine's citizens. Ukrainians compactly populated almost the whole territory of the country. Most Ukrainians live in the western regions and forest-steppe regions of the Left-Bank and the Right-Bank Ukraine. The lowest quantity of Ukrainians characterizes Lugansk and Donetsk regions as well as the Autonomous Republic of Crimea.
Ethnographic groups of Ukrainians, their geographic distribution
Culture, language, traditions, and the way of life of Ukrainians are characterized with quite similar features. At the same time, they are notable for certain ethnographic (local) peculiarities resulted from social-and-economic and historical development of different Ukrainian regions, influence of natural and economic conditions, and ties with neighboring nations.
Ethnographic peculiarities of certain Ukrainian territories differentiated in the old days, and became apparent in the feudal era when formation of Ukrainian nation featured its initial period. Data obtained in the framework of ethnology, geography, history, and economics allow to distinguish the following ethnographic regions on the territory of Ukraine: Naddnipryanschina, Podillya, Slobozhanschina, Polissya, Volyn, Prikarpattya, and Zakarpattya. What is more, such regions consist of several sub-regions that nourish their own specific cultural characteristics and genetic ties. Despite the fact that such division had been recognized officially (being confirmed by numerous documents and literary heritage), it is quite provisional and changeable. More precise regional distribution can be obtained via detailed study of historical, geographic, and ethnographic peculiarities of mentioned territories.

Non-indigenous nations
Apart from Ukrainians, the largest ethnical group on the territory of Ukraine is the one of Russians (14.356 mn people, i.e. 27% of the total population of Ukraine). Major part of Russians lives in large cities (88% of the total). As regards rural areas, Russians primarily live in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, and Sumy, Kherson, Kirovograd, and Mykolayiv regions. Such geographic distribution of Russians had formed historically. For instance, the largest ethnical arrays of Russians that retained to present day occurred due to governmental and landlord colonization and spontaneous settlement back in the XVII-XVII centuries in Slobodian Ukraine and later - in Novorossyia and Bessarabyia. In the period of capitalism, the inflow of Russians to the cities and industrial centers of Donbass and Pridneprovye featured significant intensification. During the Soviet era, the quantity of Russian population in Ukraine augmented three times.
Other nationalities contribute only 5.2% to the total population of Ukraine. For instance, total quantity of Byelorussians is equal to 440,000 people, which is 0.9% of the total. The most ancient settlements of Byelorussians are located within the borders of Ukrainian-Belarussian ethnical territory. At present, most Belarussians live in the cities of Donetsk, Lugansk, and Dnipropetrovsk regions as well as the Autonomous Republic of Crimea.

Urban and rural population, settlement patterns
In the XX century, the territory of Ukraine featured radical changes in distribution of urban and rural population. In the pre-revolution era, more than 80% of Ukrainian population lived in rural area. Later on, social changes, industrialization, development of mineral deposits, establishing of powerful scientific centers, and complicated living conditions in rural area stipulated intensive urbanization, i.e. development of cities and growth of urban population. In 1959-2006, the share of urban population in the total population of Ukraine grew from 46% to 68%. As of January 1, 2006 urban population accounted for 68% of the total against 32% brought in by rural inhabitants.
The share and density of urban population differ on the territorial basis. Urban population directly depends on location of industrial facilities. The most urbanized areas are represented by the northern part of Donetsk region, the southwestern part of Lugansk region, and regions that host large-scale industrial centers.
Regularities in present geographical distribution of rural population are based on historical peculiarities that were formed under the influence of economic, natural-and-geographic, and social-and-political factors. Distribution of rural population on the territory of Ukraine is notable for its unevenness. The most densely populated rural areas are located in forest-steppe parts of Lviv, Ternopil, Chernivtsi, Khmelnytskiy, and Vinytsya regions (60-70 individuals per 1 sq. km). Considerable density of rural population (50-60 individuals per 1 sq. km) also characterizes other forest-steppe regions of the Right-Bank Ukraine. Lower density of rural population (some 40 individuals per 1 sq. km) can be found in forest-steppe parts of the Left-Bank Ukraine. In general, forest-steppe zone embraces more than 50% of rural population in Ukraine.

Cities play crucial role in territorial organization of Ukraine. At present, Ukraine embraces 445 cities. According to existing classification, there are five categories of cities regarding their population: small cities (embracing up to 50,000 people), medium cities (hosting from 50,000 to 100,000 individuals), large cities (100,000 to 250,000 people), the largest cities (250,000 to 1 mn inhabitants), and millionaire cities (more than 1 mn inhabitants).

According to the principles of functional typology, Ukrainian cities can be also divided in several types depending on their population, employment and economic structure, administrative status, organizational and social-and-cultural functions, importance as the system-forming entities, position in settling system, and development outlooks:

Multifunctional, administrative, and large social-and-economic centers characterized with developed industry, education, servicing, and management. Such entities are represented by the largest Ukrainian cities and regional centers. Ukraine hosts 32 such cities.
Cities that primarily perform industrial functions; their population is primarily engaged in industrial production (such indicator is higher than the average Ukrainian level), and localization index in such cities exceeds "1". Total quantity of such cities is 136.
Cities that primarily perform industrial and transportation functions; more than 30% of their manpower are engaged in industrial production, and more than 20% of their manpower represent transportation sector. Ukraine embraces 43 such cities.
Cities that primarily perform transportation functions; more than 30% of their active population are engaged in transportation sector though the level of its employment in industrial sphere is considerably lower, as compared to the average Ukraine's figures. There are only 9 such cities in the country.
Cities that perform industrial and recreational functions (7 cities).
Cities that are recreational centers. Their employment structure is dominated by recreational sectors of national economy. Total quantity of such cities in Ukraine is 9.
Local organizational-and-economic and cultural centers, centers of agro-industrial complexes. Such cities are notable for insignificant population, insignificant percentage of people engaged in industrial production and high percentage of people engaged in agriculture. There are 188 such cities in the country.
Industrial-and-agrarian centers. Major part of their population works in agriculture (15 cities).
Cities with no population (Pripyat, Chernobyl) abandoned due to Chernobyl catastrophe.
Sleeping-type city (Slavutich).
As regards administrative distribution, urban settlements can be divided in cities of district, regional, and the state administration. The latter cities are represented by Kyiv and Sevastopol.

In Ukraine, there are 26 large cities, 5 of which embrace more than 1 mn inhabitants. In the 1960s and the 1970s, large and the largest cities were notable for quite significant tempos of development primarily due to mechanical augmentation of their population. Starting from the 1970s, further growth of urban population insignificantly slowed down. Among other things, such deceleration resulted from special measures aimed at suppression of excessive growth of large cities. At that time, development of large cities encountered first negative tendencies. A number of cities featured the worsening of ecological situation, and occurrence of housing and transport problems. Besides, imbalance between material production and nonproductive spheres became more profound.

Such unique settling forms as urban agglomerations emerged due to aggregation of urban settlements, especially around large cities. At present, there are 19 such agglomerations in Ukraine embracing 6 largest entities (Kyiv, Donetsk, Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk, Lviv, and Odesa that together host more than 12 mn people), 6 large entities (Krivyi Rig, Gorlivka, Lugansk, Kramatorsk, Mariupol, and Stakhanov that together embrace some 5 mn people) and 8 smaller agglomerations (Simferopol, Mykolyiv, Kherson, Krasniy Lug, Kremenchug, Lysichansk, Nikopol, and Torez that together embrace some 4 mn people).

Mentioned agglomerations are characterized with development of satellite cities, i.e. urban settlements that maintain close production, labor, and cultural ties with major cities. For instance, Kyiv borders on such satellite cities as Irpen, Boyarka, Borispil, and Vyshneve.

Development of agglomerations is still characterized with a number of negative tendencies regarding the growth in the number of such urban localities. In particular, urban and rural settlements as well as their transport and engineering systems are developed quite uncoordinatedly, which led to disordered building up of their territory, losses of agricultural cropland, and worsening of natural environment.

Kyiv is the largest city and the capital of Ukraine. It is the most significant political-and-managerial, economic, scientific, and cultural center of the state, and also is the center of Kyiv region and Kyiv-Svyatoshyn district. Kyiv embraces some 2.6 mn inhabitants. The city is divided in 10 districts. Kyiv hosts the Verkhovna Rada (Supreme Council) of Ukraine, the President of Ukraine and its Secretariat, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, and most state institutions. There are more than 20 institutions of higher education in Kyiv (Taras Shevchenko National University, National Technical University "Kiev Polytechnics", medical university, and many others). Also, Kyiv accommodated the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and its numerous research institutes. Among them, a special heed should be given to the world-famous E.O. Paton Electric Welding Institute. Besides, Kyiv is notable for the National Opera and Ballet Theatre, Ukrainian and Russian drama theatres, lots of museums, architectural sights, and picturesque parks (especially those located on the near-Dnipro slopes).
Kyiv is one of the largest industrial centers of Ukraine. In particular, Kyiv is well known due to its precision and complex machine-building, and instrument-making industries. Besides, Kyiv hosts a number of enterprises that represent light industry (knitwear, garment, and shoe factories, silk-making integrated works), and food-processing industry (confectionary factory, meat-processing plant, milk and bread-baking plants, etc.).
Kyiv is the large transportation center. Railroad, river, and motorcar roads, and airlines connect Kyiv with other Ukrainian cities and numerous countries worldwide. Also, Kyiv develops its own subway.

Manpower resources
Manpower resources embrace the most active population of a country, region or administrative district disposed to socially useful work in the framework of national economy. According to Ukrainian legislation, manpower resources include the able-bodied citizens: namely, men at the age of 16 to 60, and women at the age of 16 to 55, with an exception for unemployed invalids of the 1st and the 2nd groups and pensioners that obtain their pensions under preferential terms. Besides, manpower resources also include individuals of younger age that are de-facto engaged in socially useful work (pensioners, teenagers).

In Ukraine, manpower resources account for more than 50% of its total population. In 1970, Ukraine hosted 25.5 mn able-bodied citizens, which contributed 56% to the total. According to population census performed in 1989, Ukraine comprised 28.7 mn able-bodied citizens, which made up 55.8% of its total population. In 1996, manpower resources of Ukraine augmented to some 30 mn people.
For quite a long period of time, the volume of manpower resources in Ukraine changed under the influence of social-and-economic rather than demographic factors. This can be confirmed by the notion that augmentation of manpower resources outstripped the growth of able-bodied population.
At present, distribution of manpower resources in Ukrainian economy features the following tendency: the share of Ukrainians engaged in the sectors of material production gradually lowers while the share of Ukrainians in the non-productive sectors (education, healthcare, communal servicing, consumer services) gradually grows.
Manpower resources of Ukraine are notable for quite high level of education and qualification. For instance, in 1980 employees with higher and specialized secondary education accounted for 27% of the total quantity of workers embraced by the national economy. In 1985, this indicator grew to 30%, and in 1989 it comprised 34% of the total. At present, some 28.7% of employees in Ukraine possess higher and specialized secondary education.
Along with this, modern Ukraine is characterized with insignificant labor activity of youth (under 20 in age), which is almost 30% below the level of economically developed countries worldwide. Such tendency can be explained with considerably longer educational and professional training in Ukraine as well as two-year compulsory military service. However, recent social and political changes in Ukraine (in particular, aggravation of economic recession, and the gap between working time and existing salaries) led to significant curtailment in the number of young people that combine their study with work, and simultaneously caused the growth in the number of working youth. For the most part, such tendency is typical to large cities where young people traditionally oriented themselves to studying and obtaining of higher or specialized secondary education.
In the past decades, demographic development of Ukraine was characterized with augmented labor activity of women. Women contributed the most to the total quantity of workers and officers engaged in Ukrainian economy (52% in 1980 and 1985, 53% in 1990, and 51% in 1992 and 1995). For the most part, women in Ukraine represent the sphere of consumer services. For instance, in 1993 women comprised the bigger part of enterprises engaged in healthcare, physical culture, and social welfare (79% of the total number of their employees), trade and catering (75% of the total), culture (67%), and education (68%). In 1992, women added 49% to the total quantity of workers engaged in industrial sectors, and also contributed 41% to the total quantity of workers engaged in Ukrainian agriculture (average annual figures).
Higher labor activity of women can be explained with Ukrainian traditions, high level of their education, and economic motives. Besides, such proportion resulted from the fact that women more often lose their job and feature greater problems while looking for a new workplace. In most large cities, market proposition of female labor exceeded the proposition of male labor. For instance, in Kharkov region female labor contingent exceeds the one embracing working men by 17,500 individuals while in Kyiv such difference amounted to some 34,700 individuals. In future, considerable share of women in labor contingents is likely to retain in the central, eastern, and southeastern regions of Ukraine as well as the large cities of the country.

History

The history of our land is the history of the Ukrainians as well as many other nations, which populated this country in different times. Researchers from many countries are currently studying remains of the mysterious Trypillya civilization. Dating back to the 4th century B.C., it is one of the first known civilizations of growers. Its name comes from the town of Trypillya near Kyiv.
The wandering tribes of Scythians have also left their footprints in Ukraine. Artifacts of those ancient people are still being unearthed from burial hills of the 6th-4th century B.C. The most notable find is the gold Scythian pectoral weighing over one kilo.
A civilization of eastern Slavs developed in the lands of today's Ukraine. The 10th-11th centuries were the heydays of a powerful monarchy known as Kyivan Rus. It had cultural, trade, political, and dynastical bonds with the European countries of those times. The heads of the state were knyazs (princes). Since then, the domes of the Kyivо-Pecherskа Lavra and Kyiv's Saint Sofia Cathedral have been an indelible part of the Kyiv skyline. These architectural monuments are on the UNESCO cultural heritage list. In the 12th-14th centuries, the powerful Halytsko-Volynske Duchy existed in the western part of the modern Ukraine.
A bright page of our history is Cossacks who appeared in the 15th century. Despite the fact that Ukraine at that time was part of other states, a unique state formation appeared here, known as the Hetman state of Cossacks. The Cossacks had their own political and administrative center called Zaporizhia Sich. They elected their leaders, using democratic principles. The liberation war of 1648-1654 led by Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky was a prominent event in the history of Ukraine. By that time, the hetman government already conducted a policy independent from Poland, seeking other allies. After lengthy negotiations, B. Khmelnytsky entered into a union with Russia, placing part of Ukrainian lands under protection of the Russian state. In 1775, on order of the Russian empress Catharine II, the Zaporizhian Sich was destroyed and the Cossacks dissolved.
Another notable attempt to win independence for Ukraine occurred in the early 20th century. On January 12, 1918, the Tsentralna Rada (Central Council) - Ukraine's first parliament chaired by Mykhailo Hrushevsky - proclaimed independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR). However, Ukraine proved unable to hold its independence and fell to Bolsheviks. Later on, it was made part of the Soviet Union as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. The horrible page in the Soviet history of Ukraine was the artificial famine of 1932-1933, when each fourth grower died of hunger in the year of plenty. The World War II stormed Ukraine for 40 months, killing each fifth resident.
Despite the historic twists and turns, the Ukrainians had always cherished the dream to create a state of their own, and this dream came true in 1991. Now, we are building a new democratic country. And we should not only take pride in our history but also use our positive historical experience for this state-building effort.

Constitution

The Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament) adopted the Constitution of Ukraine in force July 28, 1996
According to this country's Basic Law, Ukraine is a sovereign, independent, democratic, and social state with a rule of law. Although such features as ‘sovereign' and ‘independent' are, in fact, closely similar, in this case the European constitutional tradition and principal thesis of fighters for Ukrainian statehood are concurrent. By the ‘democratic' feature the principle of the government by the people is emphasized being defined concretely by Article 5 stating that "the people are the bearers of sovereignty and the only source of power in Ukraine" exercising it "directly and through bodies of state power and bodies of local self-government.' By the attribute ‘social the responsibility of the State to provide for the social protection of the population is stipulated, while the ‘rule of law' implies that in Ukraine legality is to reign as the general measure of freedom, equality and justice.
Principle is the definition of the form of government by Article 6: "State power in Ukraine is exercised on the principles of its division into legislative, executive and judicial power." The Constitution defines by Article 75 the Verkhovna Rada as the sole organ of legislative power in Ukraine, with the highest executive body being the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine (Article 113). The Constitutional Court of Ukraine and courts of general jurisdiction exercise judicial proceedings in Ukraine (Articles 124 and 125). Article 102 defines the status of the President of Ukraine: "The President of Ukraine is the Head of State and acts in its name."
The Constitution of Ukraine currently in force was assessed on the whole positively by the most authoritative in the sphere of constitutional legislation "Democracy through the Law" Commission of the Council of Europe", more known as "the Venetian Commission".

The Ukrainian Road to the Constitution

In the princely Ukraine-Rus the initial written judicial laws wet reformed on the basis of common law. The first recorded reference of the code of law Statut i Zakon Ruskyi ("Charter and the Laws of Rus") contains in the treaties with Byzantium of 911 and 944 A.D. In the 11th century, the Codes of Laws of the 9th and 10th centuries became part of Yaroslav the Wise Rus'ka Pravda ("Russian Justice"). To judge by this document the Kievan Rus had indeed contained certain democratic elements. The internal social relations had been carried out predominantly on the basis of law under which considerable role was played by representative structures, in particular Viche that functioned as assembly of a town or principality residents. At the meetings of this sort princes were elected sometimes and treaties worked out that stated the rights and obligations of the sides.
In the 18th century, Pylyp Orlyk elected Hetman after the death of Ivan Mazepa wrote in a bright page in the history of the world constitutional endeavor. His treatise Pacty i Konstytutsii Zakoniv ta Volnostei Viyska Zaporizkoho (Pacts and Constitutions of Laws and Rights of the Zaporizia Army, 1710) is believed to be the first constitution of the Ukrainian state. Based on the idea of the natural law and the contractual origin of state, in accord with it, the people of Ukraine made a treaty with a Hetman transferring him a share of their freedoms for the sake of securing internal consent and external safety of the state. The document formulated principles of division of representative and executive powers and impartiality of judiciary subordinate only to the law. In general terms, Pylyp Orlyk's constitution had been concordant with the then tendencies of development of European political thought (in particular, in asserting separation of church from secular arm), and in some aspects even outstripped European political theory and practice (e.g., preferring constitutionalism over the idea of state absolutism and consent enforcement reigning at that time on the Continent).
Late on, the motifs of justice, freedom, equality, and goodwill were sound in the documents of the Brotherhood of Saint Cyril and Methodius (1845 to 1847). It was Mykhailo Drahomanov and Mykhailo Hrushevsky who made the subsequent steps in creating political and legal conception of the balanced society.
These theoretical possessions of the Ukrainian liberation thought had played considerable role in the political processes that occurred in Ukraine after the February revolution and October Bolshevyk coup that wiped the Russian Empire from the face of political map in 1917.
On November 20, 1917, the Central Rada of Ukraine, the first elected parliamentary organ in the country's history, adopted the Third Universal (Declaration and program address). It became the first constitutional act of the new Ukrainian state that guaranteed its people personal immunity, freedom of speech, press, assembly and faith. Already on January 22, 1918, the Central Rada adopted the Fourth Universal that proclaimed sovereignty and independence of Ukrai